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板凳
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发表于 2016-1-29 22:54:19
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在两院占少数的共和党议员们自然也注意到了民众要求打击犯罪的呼声。1994年9月27日,共和党议员们在国会山台阶上签署了Contract with America,承诺一旦在当年国会选举中获胜即将推动十项立法,其中包括一项加强打击犯罪的立法。当年11月,共和党在选举中取得大胜,在两院均重夺多数。1995年1月4日,来自堪萨斯州的共和党参议员,参院新任多数派领袖Bob Dole提出名为Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Improvement Act of 1995的法案,其中有一些与反恐有关的内容,但没有触及2339A条款。
与此同时,民主党将注意力更多地投到了反恐方面。2月9日,克林顿总统向国会提交了一份立法建议,名为Omnibus Counterterrorism Act of 1995。次日,来自纽约州的民主党众议员Charles Schumer在众院正式提出了这份法案,同一天,Biden参议员也在参院提出了内容完全相同的提案。
这份法案有着这么一条内容:
Sec. 2339B. Fund-raising for terrorist organizations
. . .
(d) Prohibited Activities.--
(1) Except as authorized pursuant to the procedures in subsection (e), it shall be unlawful for any person within the United States, or any person subject to the jurisdiction of the United States anywhere, to directly or indirectly, raise, receive or collect on behalf of, or furnish, give, transmit, transfer or provide funds to or for an organization or person designated by the President under subsection (c), or to attempt to do any of the foregoing.
(2) It shall be unlawful for any person within the United States or any person subject to the jurisdiction of the United States anywhere, acting for or on behalf of any organization or person designated under subsection (c), (A) to transmit, transfer, or receive any funds raised in violation of subsection (d)(1), or (B) to transmit, transfer or dispose of any funds in which any organization or person designated pursuant to subsection (c) has an interest.
. . .
H.R. 896, 104th Cong. § 301 (Mar. 21, 1995).
这便是Holder v. HLP一案的核心条款2339B的最初形态。上面的引文只是一小部份,这一条款的主要内容先是授权总统将一些外国组织定性为恐怖组织(上面没有引),然后是禁止向这些恐怖组织提供资金。
(请注意,从最早开始,2339B条款针对的就是外国恐怖组织,这一点一直没有改变过。这在牵涉到宪法的问题上有比较重要的意义,一是因为外国组织不像本土组织一样受一些宪法条款的保护,二是因为在牵涉到对外关系的案件上法院对立法和行政机构的决定有着特别的尊重。)
与此同时,法案修改了2339A条款,把整个(c)节全部删除了,也就是说与第一修正案有关的限制条文不复存在了。据后来众院司法委员会的总结,这是因为(c)(1)节要求调查人员在还没有充分调查之前就先认定调查对象有犯法意向,完全是无法操作的,而(c)(2)节要求调查人员确定被调查行为是否受第一修正案保护,也不合适,这种结论还是交给联邦法官去作比较好。
这样一来,就有了一个问题:这两个条款是否会与第一修正案相冲突?特别是2339B条款触及了向一个也许有着一些并不牵涉到恐怖活动的政治分部的组织——而不是即将从事恐怖活动的个人——进行捐款的情况,是否与最高法院认定的“政治捐款属于第一修正案保护的表达方式”的原则相抵触?而且,2339B与2339A不同,并不要求捐款人明确知道自己的款项会被用于恐怖活动,也就是说,如果捐款人一心为了促进和平事业而向上面这种政治分部捐款,甚至明确地知道自己的捐款只会被用于和平事业,同样可以被定罪,这样是否属于限制了结社自由?
4月6日,众院司法委员会就此提案与国际恐怖活动相关的条款举行了听证会(记录电子版未公开),一些与会人士提出了对一些条款是否违宪的质疑。
国会议论未定之间,4月19日,俄克拉荷马城爆炸案发生。
八天之后,Dole参议员在参院提出了1月4日法案的强化版本,其中融入了民主党的反恐法案的诸多内容。他在提案发言中开宗明义地说道:
“Our job today is not to dwell on the past, but to look to the future--to lay the foundation for a comprehensive antiterrorism plan for America. We must take every reasonable step, every responsible action, to reduce the chances that other, similar tragedies will occur elsewhere in the United States. “
104 Cong. Rec. S5841 (daily ed. Apr. 27, 1995).
作为这种step和action的一部份,新法案中从民主党提案抄入了2339A,并在民主党提案的基础上对2339B又补充了一些细节。
来自犹他州的共和党参议员,参院司法委员会主席Orrin Hatch在一同提案发言时说:
“[O]ur bill includes provisions making it a crime to knowingly provide material support to the terrorist functions of groups designated by a Presidential finding to be engaged in terrorist activities.
“I am sensitive to the concerns, as is the majority leader, of some that this provision impinges on freedoms protected by the first amendment. And, the first amendment has no greater champion than the distinguished majority leader and certainly myself. I have worked to ensue [sic] that this provision will not violate the Constitution or place inappropriate restrictions on cherished first amendment freedoms. Nothing in this provision prohibits the free exercise of religion or speech, or impinges on the freedom of association. Moreover, nothing in the Constitution provides the right to engage in violence against fellow citizens. Aiding and financing terrorist bombings is not constitutionally protected.“
104 Cong. Rec. S5842 (daily ed. Apr. 27, 1995).
但是具体到2339A和2339B两条,这种确保法案不违反第一修正案的努力体现在哪里呢?我们来看一下众院方面的解释。
此时,反恐已成为两党议员一致的当务之急,众院当然也没有放松。5月25日,来自伊州的共和党众议员,众院司法委员会主席Henry Hyde在原有民主党反恐法案的基础上提出了一个新的版本,其中这两条文本改成了下面这样:
Sec. 2339A. Providing material support to terrorists
(a) Offense.--Whoever, within the United States, provides material support or resources or conceals or disguises the nature, location, source, or ownership of material support or resources, knowing or intending that they are to be used in preparation for or in carrying out, a violation of section 32, 37, 351, 844(f) or (i), 956, 1114, 1116, 1203, 1361, 1363, 1751, 2280, 2281, 2332, 2332a, or 2332b of this title or section 46502 of title 49, or in preparation for or in carrying out the concealment or an escape from the commission of any such violation, shall be fined under this title, imprisoned not more than ten years, or both.
(b) Definition.--In this section, the term `material support or resources' means currency or other financial securities, financial services, lodging, training, safehouses, false documentation or identification, communications equipment, facilities, weapons, lethal substances, explosives, personnel, transportation, and other physical
assets.
Sec. 2339B. Providing financial support to terrorist organizations
(a) Offense.--Whoever, within the United States, knowingly provides material support or resources in or affecting interstate or foreign commerce, to any organization designated by the President under section 212(a)(3)(B)(iv) of the Immigration and Nationality Act
as a terrorist organization shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than 10 years, or both.
(b) Definition.--As used in this section, the term `material support or resources' has the meaning given that term in section 2339A of this title.
H.R. 1710, 104th Cong. §§ 102-103 (May 25, 1995).
比起2月10日的版本,这一版本的覆盖范围更为广泛了。2339A里面本来有一条特意规定人道主义援助不算在禁止提供的帮助范围之内,现在这个豁免被取消了;2339B则从单纯禁止提供款项扩展到了禁止提供一切2339A所描述的援助——包括现在也被2339A所禁止的某些人道主义援助——而且仍旧并不只限于提供援助者明确知道援助将被用于恐怖活动的情况!
但众院司法委员会并不认为这里有什么问题。他们在12月5日的总结报告中说:“The Committee is confidant that these provisions are wholly consistent with our Constitution.”(H.R. Rpt. 104-383 at 43 (Dec. 5, 1995))在一个月左右的委员会听证讨论过程中,这两个条款只在最后一天(6月20日)被修改了一次:经来自加州的民主党众议员Zoe Lofgren提议,委员会以16比15票决定在2339A的最后加上了“, except medicine or religious materials”一小句话,也就是允许向恐怖组织或恐怖分子提供这两种援助,但是仍旧在报告中加上了以下限制性说明:
‘‘Medicine’’ should be understood to be limited to the medicine itself, and does not include the vast array of medical supplies. ‘‘Religious materials’’ should not be read to include anything that could be used to cause physical injury to any person. It is meant to be limited to those religious articles typically used during rituals or teachings of a particular faith, denomination, or sect.
H.R. Rpt. 104-383 at 82 (Dec. 5, 1995)
为什么他们认为2339A与2339B这两个条款没有问题呢?12月5日的报告中,他们花了三页纸(43-45)的篇幅,分析了最高法院的相关判例,给出了以下解释:
一、这两个条款不侵犯政治言论或结社自由。这两个条款并不禁止人们持有和恐怖组织相同的思想立场,或禁止人们站在恐怖组织的立场上发表言论。
二、这两个条款并不是根据受援助对象的观点而区分对待不同的援助行为,而是根据受援助对象的不法行为来区分对待。
三、若不使用这样强有力的条款,就无法达到切断恐怖分子经济来源的非常重要的政府目标。
至于这样的条款是不是打击面太广,连带明确地只向那些组织的政治分部的合法行为而提供的援助也一并禁止了,众院司法委员会的回答是:一点都不广,允许向这些行为提供援助,就等于减轻了恐怖组织的整体经济负担,允许恐怖组织腾出更多的财产用于恐怖活动之中。法案后来最后通过的版本将这个理论总结为:“foreign organizations that engage in terrorist activity are so tainted by their criminal conduct that any contribution to such an organization facilitates that conduct.” (Pub. L. No. 104-132, § 301(a)(7), 110 Stat. 1214, 1247 (1996))
于是,两院的立法工作顺利进展。6月7日,法案在参院以91比8的票数通过。在通过的版本中,将一个外国组织定性为恐怖组织的权力被下放到了国务卿手中。1996年3月14日,众院以229比191票通过了经司法委员会修改的众院版本,然后将参院版本替换为这一版本。
4月15日,两院协商会议达成最后版本,2339A按众院版本定稿,2339B的标题改为Providing material support or resources to designated foreign terrorist organizations,从参院版本吸收了很多程序方面的条文,但是基本部份仍旧采用了众院版本:
Sec. 2339B. Providing material support or resources to designated foreign terrorist organizations
(a) PROHIBITED ACTIVITIES-
(1) UNLAWFUL CONDUCT- Whoever, within the United States or subject to the jurisdiction of the United States, knowingly provides material support or resources to a foreign terrorist organization, or attempts or conspires to do so, shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than 10 years, or both.
. . .
(g) DEFINITIONS- As used in this section--
. . .
(4) the term `material support or resources' has the same meaning as in section 2339A;
. . .
Pub. L. No. 104-132, § 303, 110 Stat. 1214, 1250 (1996).
4月17日,参院再次以91比8的票数通过最后版本;18日,众院以293比133票通过;24日,经克林顿总统签署为Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996(AEDPA)。
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